How Have Western Views of Knowledge Changed over Time? Essay

Throughout history, cultures have held disparate views on the nature of knowledge. Epistemology, the branch of philosophy that focuses on basic questions such as: â€Å"What is knowledge? How do we know what we know? †, lies at the heart of these views. In Western culture, the answers to these basic questions have changed markedly over time. Throughout history, this evolution in philosophy has been inextricably linked to science and religion. Much of Western thought has been heavily influenced by the philosophy of the Ancient Greeks. In particular, the epistemological views of the Ancient Greeks dominated Western thought for centuries. Of all the Greek philosophers, Plato was one of the most influential. In his most famous work The Republic, Plato used the Allegory of the Cave to describe the role of sensory perception in knowledge acquisition. In his analogy, Plato described a cave in which people were chained down in such a way that prevented them from looking anywhere but forward. Behind them was a fire and in front of them was a wall that reflected shadows from that fire. The prisoner’s captors manipulated these shadows to create forms and stories. The forms and stories that the prisoners saw were the only reality that they knew. Eventually the prisoners left the cave and found true reality outside. It was only then that the prisoners understood that what they had perceived until this moment was a false perception. The Allegory of the Cave served to illustrate Plato’s epistemological views. Today, we describe Plato’s philosophical views as rationalist. He argued against reliance on sensory experience because he believed that it failed to provide us with any guarantee that what we experience was, in fact, true. He believed that the information we get by relying on sensory experience is constantly changing and often unreliable. It can be evaluated only by appealing to higher principles that do not change. In the Allegory of the Cave, Plato was comparing our sensory perception to the shadows on the wall of the cave. Plato saw us as the chained prisoners unable to know anything but this false reality. Only by leaving the cave and ascending to higher orders of thought are we able to know true reality. Implicit in this view was the belief that true knowledge cannot be found through empirical investigation. According to Plato, empirical knowledge was merely opinion. Only thought and abstract reasoning could produce true knowledge. The rationalist view of epistemology dominated much of Western thought for centuries. Eventually, progress in science during the Renaissance changed this. One of the first to change these dominant views was Andreas Vesalius. In 1543, Vesalius published De Humanis Corporis Fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body), an elaborately illustrated atlas of human anatomy. While Vesalius’ published work had significant historical importance in the field of medicine, his most enduring legacy was his revolutionary challenge of the medical conventions of his day. For centuries, physicians had relied on reading texts from Galen for medical knowledge rather than participating in the direct dissection of human corpses. Vesalius promoted the practice of dissection and hands on experience. By overthrowing the Galenic tradition and relying on his own observations, Vesalius was advocating an empirical understanding of the human body. This shift from rationalism to empiricism became one of the defining characteristics of the Scientific Revolution. In direct contrast to rationalism, empiricism emphasized the acquisition of knowledge through direct observation and experiment. Empiricism not only encouraged but required reliance on our senses. This was in direct opposition to Plato’s epistemological view that had dominated for a millennium. This shift from Plato’s rationalism to scientific empiricism had significant ramifications for philosophy. While before this time there had always been collaboration between science and philosophy and religion, there had been no real distinction between them. Now, empirical knowledge served as a way of testing philosophical knowledge. This would ultimately lead to their incompatibility and their eventual separation. This separation is largely attributed to Galileo, one of the major figures during the Scientific Revolution. Even in his time, Galileo was a renown scientist and a philosopher. While he relied heavily on empirical methods in his studies of physics and astronomy, he also depended on rational thinking in his use of mathematics. It was through his combined use of empirical observations and rational thought that he confirmed the Copernican view that the sun was the center of the universe. However, the Copernican heliocentric worldview conflicted with the dominant geocentric view espoused by philosophers from the time of Aristotle. Making matters even more complicated was the fact that philosophers couched this dispute as a religious matter arguing that a heliocentric worldview went against the teachings of the Bible. As the geocentric view had been adopted by the church, the heliocentric worldview was branded as heresy. Galileo, certain of the physical truth of his heliocentric paradigm and at the same time devout in his religious beliefs, worked to reconcile this conflict by divorcing the church from â€Å"purely physical matters, where faith is not involved. † By working to separate science, philosophy, and religion, Galileo was attempting to reestablish the compatibility of science and religion. Despite Galileo’s attempts, the conflict between scientific and religious worldviews is still evident today. The epistemological tradition of today has created a dominant worldview based on evidence. As during the time of Galileo, this worldview has at times conflicted with widely held religious beliefs. This divide, empiricism vs. faith, has become an increasingly prominent conflict in American politics. A recent announcement by GOP presidential candidate, Rick Perry highlights this divide. Rick Perry recently publicly declared his disbelief in the theory of evolution in favor of intelligent design. The theory of evolution is an explanation of the origin of life widely supported across numerous scientific disciplines. Though science and empiricism overwhelming supports the theory of evolution, it does not largely accepted by the populace. The controversial nature of evolution has emerged because, once again, a â€Å"purely physical matter† has been politicized as a religious matter. Rick Perry’s views on evolution illustrate a larger phenomenon in U. S. politics. That is, views regarding the evolution/intelligent design conflict tend to be politically divided. Intelligent design or faith based arguments are generally forwarded by conservative Republicans such as Rick Perry. Evidence based empirical arguments, such as evolution, are championed by liberal Democrats. Science has become political as conservatives are aligned with religion.

Family Planning Essay

Building a family is a shared responsibility between the husband and wife. They must learn about responsible parenthood. Responsible Parenthood is the will and the ability to respond to the needs and aspirations of the family and children. This means that the couple must be sensitive about the needs of the family and their children to be able to be a healthy family. It involves an adequate preparation to plan and decide the number of children they want and when to have them to ensure the health of the whole family. Hence, the community health nurse should make certain that the couples have the knowledge and services to make informed choices on timing, number and spacing of child bearing. The benefits of family planning are the following: 1. Family planning helps couples plan pregnancies that would be least risky to the health of the mother and the child. 2. Family planning helps reduce environmental problems like overcrowding which cause easy transmission of diseases. 3. Family plann9ing helps reduce the incidence of hereditary diseases like mental retardation, psychotic tendencies, blood disorders, etc. 4. Family planning helps especially low-income fathers to be less prone to suffer from illnesses such as hypertension, gastric ulcer, nervous disorders and communicable diseases. 5. Family planning helps the family members live healthy, more productive and fulfilled lives as each has been afforded the chance to discover and develop his potentials. 6. Family planning deduces the rate of population growth, thus enabling social and economic development.

This Case Study Analysis coursework consists in writing an ethical Essay - 1

This Case Study Analysis coursework consists in writing an ethical reasoning and critical argument to identify, discuss and address potential ethical issues for a given computing project - Essay Example y systems have taken different dimensions because not only do the ethical issues arise due to the emergence of technology but also due to the implementation by the users. Moreover, the ethical issues may also involve the role of the developer of the system concerning the objective of the information technology system. The following analysis aims to identify the ethical issues surrounding a class project concerning intellectual property and reliability of the project. The case study for the analysis is based on the student workload tracker project. The student Workload tracker project was developed under the oversight of two administrator and nine project members who contributed towards the development of the project. The student workload tracker project was aimed at developing a computer system that would enhance the scheduling process of student’s assignments in school. In an ordinary learning environment students attempt to struggle balancing assignments, academic studies and social life. Subsequently, this makes the students to be overwhelmed since especially when they lack proper time management skills. Therefore, the student workload tracker project was aimed at developing a time management schedule based on the analysis of students’ routine activities and the normal time spent on completing a specific activity. Consequently, the system would use the data to present a trend based on various analytical tools such as graphs and charts. In addition a user interface would be used to enhance the appearance of the data in order to provide a clear view of the students’ task performance trends. Therefore based on the portrayed trend by the system, the students would be in a position to create a reliable schedule based on sequence of assignments and the anticipated time for completing relevant tasks. The implementation of the Student Workload tracker system was assessed on the basis of functionality and achievement of the deliverables by the group members.

Debate] about should voters approve some particular measure that Essay

Debate] about should voters approve some particular measure that allows some state or county to regulate legalized prostitution - Essay Example The first group is represented by proponents of the so-called proposition K (a measure to decriminalize prostitution) who also agree on the necessity of legalization and subsequent regulation. The members of this group suggest a variety of measures that would help regulate prostitution as a legalized business in the United States. The second group is represented by the opponents to the Proposition K and to legalization of prostitution in the United States. For this group, the question of the prostitution regulation by law does not exist as they oppose the very idea of its decriminalization and legalization of â€Å"the world’s oldest profession† (Armentano, â€Å"The Case for Legalized Prostitution†). This paper explores the arguments of both groups using the Toulmin model and provides a justified perspective on the issue. Firstly, the rhetorical situation is considered as the phenomenon of prostitution is discussed in the context of modern American society and i ts status. Next, the arguments of each side are analyzed with the help of the Toulmin model, which will help to reveal the common backing. Further, the author’s perspective on the issue will be discussed. ... In addition, it is alleged that the illegal status of prostitution has prevented women from working in safe conditions and urged them to work in the streets. Also, illegal prostitution, which is deemed a misdemeanor, incurs millions of tax dollars to be spent on investigation and prosecution of this criminal offense. To illustrate, statistic data show that Los Angeles spends around 100 million dollars a year to deal with prostitution (Armentano, â€Å"The Case for Legalized Prostitution†). Besides, it was estimated that nearly a half of illegal prostitutes in New York City and Washington D.C. were HIV-positive back in the 1990s (Armentano, â€Å"The Case for Legalized Prostitution†). Proponents of prostitution legalization and regulation warrant that legalization and regulation of prostitution is beneficial in many ways. They back their statement by saying that legalized brothels, with strict regulation by the state, in combination with severe penalties for the so-calle d johns that seek sex in the streets, will prevent human trafficking, spread of infections, and victimization of prostitutes (Lee & Persson 1). While it can be said that prostitution is a morally challenging occupation that promotes the decay of norms and values in the society and does not deserve decriminalization and legalization, it remains a fact that to use the services of sex workers or not is a personal choice of each of us. In addition, some people oppose the idea that legalized and regulated prostitution will help reduce victimization of prostitutes pointing out that the black market will still exist and keep recruiting girls from poor nations, the fraction of involuntary prostitutes as

Strategic Change Context Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Strategic Change Context - Essay Example (Grant, 2010) This way, an organisation can constantly monitor and examine the change under implementation. It helps to visualise the change a process rather than a fixed and controllable transition of events. (Grant, 2010) A force-field analysis is a tool that helps in determining, analysing and evaluating the various forces that stand for or against a proposed change. The use of this technique helps in offering alternatives to propel the decisions towards the desired change. (Lynch, 2008) With the knowledge of these forces, an organisation possesses information to amend the identified loopholes in the change process. In addition, all efforts are put in the task of pushing towards the achievement of the intended organisation strategy. (Wickham, 2008) Meg Whitman, as the overseer of the change in the declining organisation was to examine the extent of the change needed in terms of the depth, superficiality and whether the change should be transformational. In the implementation of change, Meg had to find out what was working and what was not. The manager is seen to exercise this element of change by eliminating the resources that tended to bar the interaction of the

Sociolinguistics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Sociolinguistics - Essay Example Lower geographical distances and large population sizes often results in increased social contact between two locations and the chance that the respective dialects are influenced by each other (Heeringa, 2006). Therefore by establishing language variation theories more information can be gathered about the speakers, their representations, about the structures of the society and interactions (Berruto, 2004). The scientific study of language is called linguistics. Formal models are often constructed which allow us to understand the functioning of various modules of the linguistic grammar function1. These modules include study of variations in phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. In fact there's a school of thought which says that, "In the absence of variation, languages would no longer be the versatile, flexible semiotic instruments they are, malleably following the flow of time and history. This capacity for variation would appear to be co-essential to natural langu ages" (Berruto, 2004). Variations in language can be; Dialect: This is a somewhat complex concept. Dialect is considered a collection of attributes (phonetic, phonological, syntactic, morphological, semantic) that make one group of speakers noticeably different from another group of speakers of the same language Therefore while on the one hand there are variations in the languages li

Difficulties students have when dealing with measurement concepts Term Paper

Difficulties students have when dealing with measurement concepts (length, area, volume, value (money), angle and time - Term Paper Example This necessitates the development of understandings based on the estimation and measurements of these attributes as well as, their existing interrelationships, additionally, the units and conventions related to the measurements and recordings on elapses of time and its duration is essential (Ser, Journeaux, and Larcher, 1993). Having in mind, measurement requires that students should be able to develop dexterity in the application of the various measuring instruments. Additionally, sound understanding of use of whole numbers and decimal number numerations and competency when using mathematical processes such as counting is essential (Barge, 2012). Notably, making sense of measurements necessitates that students need to formulate mind pictures and personal referents for different measures to assist in the estimation. However, research has indicated that students often experience problems involving different measures (Barge, 2012). Intriguing is the fact that students experience such p roblems and yet measurement is one of the most widely taught and relevant in all aspects of the curriculum. As noted, what makes measurement so difficult to student, and what can be done in order to help students master the concepts and skills which would be instrumental in ensuring proficiency in this field? This paper seeks to investigate the problems experienced by students in concepts of measurement involving length, volume, area value or money angle and time. In order to identify the problems faced by students in matters involving measurement, it is necessary that we all understand what measurement is all about. As Kamil and Clark, (1997) explains, measurement is a number which indicates a comparison between the attributes of the object under measurement and the same attributes of a given unit of measure. Often students are poorly informed on the on the differences between square, linear, and cubic centimeters. In early years, students have been reported of having difficulties in understanding that length remains the same when an object is moved to a different location either vertically or horizontally, or that volume also remains the same for a given quantity of water regardless of whether the container used is wide, short, tall and narrow. Similarly, students have experienced problems in comprehending that masses of a given objects remains unchanged irrespective of whether there is a change in the shape of the object. Students have been reported of having experienced problems since they confuse it with size, volume or quantity (Kamil, and Clark, 1997). Most common, the misconception that if an object is large then, it has a high mass is widespread amongst students. This often occur when the judgments are made based on the sight rather than on the feel. For instance, students often think that a tennis ball s much heavier than a golf ball since it physically appears to be larger than the golf ball. In relation to quantity, students have been reported of i maging that two foam balls are much heavier than a soccer ball since it appears that foam ball are many as compared to one soccer ball. Indeed, conservation is a concept that needs to be introduced in the classrooms if students are to effectively solve measurement problems. Additionally, students need many opportunities in order to overcome the impenetrability which seems to surround

Knowledge Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Knowledge Management - Essay Example It was way back in 1986, that there have been a number of theories that have been developed to manage the intellectual capital in the 21st century (Carlie, 1998). There has been immense and rapid growth in terms of knowledge management and this has been even higher since 1996. Knowledge management is a growing and established discipline and is being followed in many large organisations. Knowledge Management is slowly becoming a major and a very crucial issue in companies. It is essential to understand that knowledge is a major economic challenge for companies in the future (Hewitt, 2000). For every innovative and successful organisation, there is a high need for creating, capitalising and sharing the Knowledge capital. It is essential to understand that Knowledge management is a programme which is more of a long term effort, and includes a strong need for strategic commitment and involves and includes a number of analysis of the knowledge and know how in the company. It also involves the integration of a number of tools as well. Knowledge has been noted to bring about the possibility for mangers and businesses to make decision to create higher success and competitive advantage (Hewitt, 2000). Knowledge plays and essential part in every business and creates a potential in managers to use the corporate knowledge that they have to improve and optimize their resources not only in terms of financial but also the in terms of human resources as well. Researchers have noticed over the years that almost 75 – 80 percent of all large companies have a strong inclination and formal KM programs. KM is slowly becoming a major and crucial issue in companies. It is safe to say that knowledge has already grown largely and it has become one of the most essential aspects of any business. It has become a major driver and money is now slowly phasing out of the scene and as the old saying of ‘Knowledge is king’, is now being put to use in almost

Folk Songs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Folk Songs - Essay Example Slaves used traditional folk songs as a way to maintain their heritage in the face of not being allowed to read or write. Music has long been recognized as an effective means of passing the oral tradition as the sound and the syntax reinforce the text (Bohlman 15) Often the folk song is invoked to maintain a connection with something that is being lost to the past or to celebrate something happening in the present. They often involve the emotions that surround work such as "Pat Works on the Railway" (Lauter). Workers would sing these work songs as a way to pass the time and effort. Gandy dancers, the men who built and maintained the railroads, had a large volume of folk music that was performed as rhythmic chants to ease their mind from the grueling labor (Sloss Furnaces Presents) Folk music often is closely associated with a cultural group. As the culture changes with time, the folk music evolves with it. Religion has had a close connection with folk music, as churches would sing folk songs reflecting the groups common bond to the church. Poor whites in the south during the early 19th century would gather around camps and sing folk songs that told of, "debt, chain gangs, and deeds of drinking prowess" (Nash et al. 560). Groups that were socially outcast or politically disenfranchised would turn to folk music to maintain a common bond.